關(guān)于學(xué)習(xí)障礙的研究在國(guó)外已有兩百多年的歷史。近年來(lái)，我國(guó)教育工作者在實(shí)施素質(zhì)教育的過(guò)程中也對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)障礙問(wèn)題進(jìn)行了廣泛研究與實(shí)驗(yàn)，并取得了顯著的效果。21世紀(jì)是信息化的時(shí)代，信息的爆炸導(dǎo)致知識(shí)激增，閱讀就成為個(gè)體重要的學(xué)習(xí)和生活技能。而事實(shí)上相當(dāng)一部分人，特別是中學(xué)生，存在閱讀障礙（或稱(chēng)閱讀困難），這不僅使這些學(xué)生的語(yǔ)文學(xué)習(xí)成績(jī)落后，而且嚴(yán)重影響其他學(xué)科的學(xué)習(xí)和終生學(xué)習(xí)能力的形成。在我國(guó)新一輪課程教材改革的大背景下，為了實(shí)現(xiàn)學(xué)習(xí)方式的根本性改變，研究中學(xué)生閱讀學(xué)習(xí)障礙，提出有效的解決策略，提高學(xué)生閱讀學(xué)習(xí)的能力，具有十分重要的現(xiàn)實(shí)意義。
The study of learning disabilities has a history of more than 200 years abroad. In recent years, in the process of implementing quality-oriented education, educators in China have carried out extensive research and experiments on learning disabilities, and achieved remarkable results. The 21st century is an information age. The explosion of information leads to a surge of knowledge. Reading has become an important learning and life skill for individuals. In fact, quite a number of people, especially middle school students, have reading obstacles (or reading difficulties), which not only make these students' Chinese learning performance backward, but also seriously affect the formation of other subjects' learning and lifelong learning ability. In the context of the new round of curriculum reform in China, in order to realize the fundamental change of learning style, it is of great practical significance to study middle school students' reading learning obstacles, put forward effective solutions and improve students' reading learning ability.
一、關(guān)于閱讀學(xué)習(xí)的定義
1、 On the definition of reading learning
1、關(guān)于學(xué)習(xí)障礙的定義
1. On the definition of learning disabilities
學(xué)習(xí)障礙一詞產(chǎn)生于1963年。較早也是影響最大的定義是“美國(guó)公法94—142的定義”。其定義為：“學(xué)習(xí)障礙一詞是指與理解、運(yùn)用語(yǔ)言有關(guān)的一種或幾種心理過(guò)程上的異常，以至于使兒童在聽(tīng)、說(shuō)、讀、拼寫(xiě)、思考或數(shù)學(xué)運(yùn)算方面現(xiàn)實(shí)出能力不足的現(xiàn)象。這些異常包括知覺(jué)障礙、腦傷、輕微腦功能失調(diào)、閱讀障礙和發(fā)展性失語(yǔ)癥等情形?！边@一定義表明，學(xué)習(xí)障礙是一個(gè)心理過(guò)程，其表現(xiàn)為特定學(xué)習(xí)領(lǐng)域中的困難，如：聽(tīng)講、說(shuō)話(huà)、思考、閱讀、運(yùn)算等。
The term learning disability was coined in 1963. The earlier and most influential definition is "the definition of public law 94-142". It is defined as: "learning disability" refers to one or several mental process abnormalities related to understanding and using language, so that children have insufficient ability in listening, speaking, reading, spelling, thinking or mathematical operation. These abnormalities include sensory impairment, brain injury, mild brain dysfunction, dyslexia and developmental aphasia This definition shows that learning disability is a psychological process, which is manifested by difficulties in specific learning fields, such as listening, speaking, thinking, reading, computing, etc.
美國(guó)“全美學(xué)習(xí)障礙聯(lián)合會(huì)”（NJCLD）于1981年提出關(guān)于學(xué)習(xí)障礙的新定義，其表述為：“學(xué)習(xí)障礙指在聽(tīng)、說(shuō)、讀、寫(xiě)、推理或數(shù)學(xué)運(yùn)算等方面的獲取和運(yùn)用上表現(xiàn)出顯著困難的一群不同性質(zhì)的學(xué)習(xí)異常者之通稱(chēng)。這些異?，F(xiàn)象是個(gè)人內(nèi)在的，一般認(rèn)為是指中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)功能失常。”
In 1981, njcld put forward a new definition of learning disabilities, which is expressed as: "learning disabilities refer to a group of learners with different characteristics who have significant difficulties in acquiring and using in listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical operations. These abnormalities are intrinsic to individuals and are generally considered to refer to central nervous system dysfunction. "
世界衛(wèi)生組織于1989年出版的《國(guó)際疾病分類(lèi)》第10版學(xué)習(xí)障礙歸于發(fā)育障礙類(lèi)別下，稱(chēng)為“學(xué)習(xí)技能發(fā)育障礙”，定義是：“發(fā)育的早期階段起，兒童獲得學(xué)習(xí)技能的正常方式受損。這種損害不是單純?nèi)狈W(xué)習(xí)機(jī)會(huì)的結(jié)果，不是智力發(fā)育遲緩的結(jié)果，也不是后天的腦外傷或疾病的結(jié)果。這種障礙來(lái)源于認(rèn)識(shí)處理過(guò)程的異常，由一組障礙所構(gòu)成，表現(xiàn)在閱讀、拼寫(xiě)、計(jì)算和運(yùn)動(dòng)功能方面有特殊和明顯的損害?！?/p>
In 1989, the 10th edition of the international classification of diseases published by the World Health Organization (who), learning disabilities are classified under the category of developmental disorders, called "developmental disorders of learning skills", which is defined as: "from the early stage of development, children's normal way of acquiring learning skills is impaired. This kind of damage is not the result of the lack of learning opportunities, not the result of mental retardation, nor the result of postnatal brain injury or disease. This kind of obstacle comes from the abnormal process of cognitive processing, which is composed of a group of obstacles. It has special and obvious damage in reading, spelling, calculation and motor function. "
1992年，我國(guó)臺(tái)灣教育部提出一個(gè)法定的學(xué)習(xí)障礙的定義：“學(xué)習(xí)障礙，指在聽(tīng)、說(shuō)、讀、寫(xiě)、算等能力的習(xí)得與運(yùn)用上有顯著的困難者。學(xué)習(xí)障礙可以伴隨其他障礙，如感覺(jué)障礙、智能不足、情緒困擾；或由環(huán)境因素所引起，如文化刺激不足，教學(xué)不當(dāng)所產(chǎn)生得障礙，但不是由前述狀況所直接引起的結(jié)果。學(xué)習(xí)障礙通常包括發(fā)展性的學(xué)習(xí)障礙和學(xué)業(yè)性的學(xué)習(xí)障礙，前者如注意力缺陷、知覺(jué)缺陷、視動(dòng)協(xié)調(diào)能力缺陷和記憶力缺陷等，后者如閱讀能力障礙、書(shū)寫(xiě)能力障礙和數(shù)學(xué)障礙?！?/p>
In 1992, Taiwan's Ministry of education put forward a legal definition of learning disabilities: "learning disabilities refer to those who have significant difficulties in the acquisition and application of listening, speaking, reading, writing, calculating and other abilities. Learning disabilities can be accompanied by other barriers, such as sensory barriers, lack of intelligence, emotional distress, or barriers caused by environmental factors, such as lack of cultural stimulation, improper teaching, but not directly caused by the above conditions. Learning disabilities usually include developmental learning disabilities and academic learning disabilities. The former includes attention deficit, perception deficit, visual motor coordination deficit and memory deficit, while the latter includes reading disability, writing disability and mathematics disability
我國(guó)學(xué)者、北師大劉翔平博士認(rèn)為：學(xué)習(xí)障礙是指，智力正常，但由于聽(tīng)、說(shuō)、讀、寫(xiě)、算和溝通技能方面出現(xiàn)落后而導(dǎo)致學(xué)習(xí)成績(jī)低下的現(xiàn)象，其實(shí)質(zhì)是學(xué)習(xí)成績(jī)與智力不相匹配。
According to Dr. Liu Xiangping, a Chinese scholar and Peking Normal University, learning disability refers to the phenomenon that the intelligence is normal, but the learning performance is low due to the backward listening, speaking, reading, writing, calculating and communication skills. Its essence is that the learning performance does not match the intelligence.
上述關(guān)于學(xué)習(xí)障礙的定義似乎與閱讀障礙有些文不對(duì)題，但稍加分析我們就會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)其與閱讀障礙的聯(lián)系。在上述定義（或此外的90多條有關(guān)學(xué)習(xí)障礙的定義）中，研究者對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)障礙都有不同的認(rèn)識(shí)和理解，如美國(guó)公法94—142的定義認(rèn)為學(xué)習(xí)障礙“是指與理解、運(yùn)用語(yǔ)言有關(guān)的一種或幾種心理過(guò)程上的異常”；美國(guó)“全美學(xué)習(xí)障礙聯(lián)合會(huì)”（NJCLD）將學(xué)習(xí)障礙從某中“缺陷”和“能力不足”改為“有顯著困難”，使定義更具有操作性；世界衛(wèi)生組織的將學(xué)習(xí)障礙表述為“學(xué)習(xí)技能發(fā)育障礙”，這實(shí)際上將問(wèn)題指向了方法；而我國(guó)臺(tái)灣的定義將學(xué)習(xí)障礙分為發(fā)展性的學(xué)習(xí)障礙和學(xué)業(yè)性的學(xué)習(xí)障礙，認(rèn)為學(xué)習(xí)障礙可以伴隨其他障礙，如感覺(jué)障礙、智能不足、情緒困擾；或由環(huán)境因素所引起，如文化刺激不足，教學(xué)不當(dāng)所產(chǎn)生的障礙。但是，幾乎所有關(guān)于學(xué)習(xí)障礙的定義中，都認(rèn)為閱讀障礙是學(xué)習(xí)障礙的一種。一般認(rèn)為閱讀障礙是學(xué)習(xí)障礙中最常見(jiàn)的一種障礙。1993年的一項(xiàng)統(tǒng)計(jì)資料表明，有80%的學(xué)習(xí)障礙兒童出現(xiàn)閱讀方面的困難。另?yè)?jù)統(tǒng)計(jì)，美國(guó)在發(fā)展方面存在障礙的兒童占兒童總數(shù)的5、25%，在學(xué)習(xí)障礙兒童中有至少50%是閱讀障礙兒童。可見(jiàn)，閱讀障礙兒童所占比例之大。這表明，有關(guān)學(xué)習(xí)障礙研究的理論與實(shí)踐方面的成果和研究方法可以直接應(yīng)用于閱讀障礙研究，或作為閱讀障礙研究的借鑒。
The above definition of learning disabilities seems to be somewhat out of line with reading disabilities, but a little analysis will reveal its connection with reading disabilities. In the above definitions (or more than 90 other definitions of learning disabilities), researchers have different understandings and understandings of learning disabilities. For example, the definition of public law 94-142 of the United States holds that learning disabilities "refers to one or several psychological process abnormalities related to understanding and using language"; the United States "National Association of learning disabilities" (njcld) takes learning disabilities from one to the other "lacks" "Depression" and "lack of ability" are replaced by "having significant difficulties", which makes the definition more operational; the World Health Organization describes learning disabilities as "learning skill development disorders", which actually points to the method; while the definition of Taiwan in China divides learning disabilities into developmental learning disabilities and academic learning disabilities, and considers that learning disabilities can be accompanied by other obstacles, Such as sensory barriers, lack of intelligence, emotional distress, or obstacles caused by environmental factors, such as insufficient cultural stimulation and improper teaching. However, in almost all definitions of learning disabilities, dyslexia is considered to be one of them. Generally speaking, dyslexia is one of the most common learning disabilities. A 1993 statistic shows that 80% of children with learning disabilities have difficulty in reading. According to statistics, 5 and 25% of children in the United States have developmental disabilities, and at least 50% of children with learning disabilities are dyslexic children. It can be seen that the proportion of children with dyslexia is large. This shows that the theoretical and practical achievements and research methods of the study of learning disabilities can be directly applied to the study of reading disorders, or as a reference for the study of reading disorders.
2、關(guān)于閱讀障礙的定義
2. On the definition of dyslexia
關(guān)于閱讀障礙的定義有廣義和狹義之分。廣義的閱讀障礙是指所有不能進(jìn)行正常閱讀的狀況。廣義的閱讀障礙分獲得性閱讀障礙和發(fā)展性閱讀障礙。前者是指由于后天腦損傷引起的閱讀困難，后者是指?jìng)€(gè)體在一般智力、感覺(jué)的敏銳性、動(dòng)機(jī)、生活環(huán)境和教育條件等方面與其他個(gè)體沒(méi)有差異，也沒(méi)有明顯的腦損傷，但卻終生處于閱讀困難的狀態(tài)中。狹義的閱讀障礙就是指發(fā)展性閱讀障礙。一般學(xué)校教育中所說(shuō)的閱讀障礙，使之發(fā)展性閱讀障礙，更確切的說(shuō)是閱讀學(xué)習(xí)困難。
There are broad and narrow definitions of dyslexia. In a broad sense, dyslexia refers to all situations in which normal reading is not possible. Generally speaking, dyslexia can be divided into acquired dyslexia and developmental dyslexia. The former refers to the reading difficulty caused by the postnatal brain injury, while the latter refers to the situation in which the individual has no difference with other individuals in general intelligence, sensitivity of sensation, motivation, living environment and education conditions, and has no obvious brain injury, but is in the state of reading difficulty all his life. Narrow sense dyslexia refers to developmental dyslexia. Generally speaking, reading disorder in school education makes it a developmental reading disorder, more specifically, reading learning difficulty.
世界神經(jīng)學(xué)協(xié)會(huì)給特殊發(fā)展性閱讀障礙下的定義是：“不受傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)、智力和社會(huì)文化因素影響的、表現(xiàn)為學(xué)習(xí)閱讀困難的失調(diào)，它依賴(lài)于基本的認(rèn)知障礙，這種認(rèn)知障礙通常存在某種結(jié)構(gòu)性根源?！?/p>
The definition of special developmental dyslexia given by the world Neurology Association is: "dyslexia, which is not affected by traditional teaching, intelligence and social and cultural factors, is manifested as learning and reading difficulties. It depends on basic cognitive disorders, which usually have some structural roots."
所謂“閱讀障礙”是指對(duì)閱讀技能的掌握落后于年齡常模，而落后的原因又不是智力落后、重大腦損傷或嚴(yán)重的情緒不穩(wěn)定”。（［美］E。J。Gibson）。
The so-called "dyslexia" refers to the fact that the mastery of reading skills lags behind the age norm, and the reasons for the lag are not mental retardation, major brain injury or serious emotional instability. (beauty) e. J. Gibson).
兒童閱讀障礙主要包括認(rèn)字和理解兩大部分。具有閱讀障礙的兒童在學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中一般會(huì)出現(xiàn)以下特征：①閱讀速度慢，逐字閱讀，有時(shí)需要用手指的協(xié)調(diào)；②易出現(xiàn)錯(cuò)讀，如跳行、省略、替代、歪曲、添加或顛倒字詞；③閱讀時(shí)停頓次數(shù)太多，或者經(jīng)常不知道讀到哪里了；④對(duì)短語(yǔ)的成分劃分不準(zhǔn)確；⑤讀后不能回憶閱讀的內(nèi)容；⑥不能從閱讀材料中得出結(jié)論，即不能概括中心思想；⑦常用常識(shí)作為背景，而不是以文章中的材料來(lái)回答問(wèn)題，即答非所問(wèn)；⑧聽(tīng)寫(xiě)成績(jī)差。
Children's dyslexia mainly includes two parts: reading and understanding. Children with dyslexia generally have the following characteristics in the learning process: ① slow reading speed, word for word reading, sometimes need to use the coordination of fingers; ② prone to misreading, such as skipping, omitting, replacing, distorting, adding or reversing words; ③ too many pauses in reading, or often don't know where to read; ④ inaccurate composition division of phrases; ⑤ after reading Can't recall the content of reading; can't draw a conclusion from the reading materials, that is, can't generalize the central idea; can't use common sense as the background, instead of using the materials in the article to answer the questions, that is, the answers are not what they ask; can't get good dictation results.
也有研究者認(rèn)為閱讀障礙兒童有以下學(xué)習(xí)困難：
Some researchers also think that children with dyslexia have the following learning difficulties:
1、認(rèn)字與記字困難重重，剛學(xué)過(guò)的字就忘記；
1. It is very difficult to recognize and memorize the characters, so I forget the words I just learned;
2、聽(tīng)寫(xiě)成績(jī)很差；
2. Poor dictation;
3、朗讀時(shí)增字與減字；
3. Add and subtract words when reading aloud;
4、朗讀時(shí)不按字閱讀，而是隨意按照自己的想法閱讀；
4. When reading aloud, do not read according to words, but read according to your own ideas at will;
5、錯(cuò)別字連篇，寫(xiě)字經(jīng)常多一筆或少一筆；
5. Write one more or one less stroke often;
6、閱讀速度慢；
6. Slow reading speed;
7、逐字閱讀或已手指協(xié)助；
7. Read word for word or with the help of fingers;
8、說(shuō)作文可以，但寫(xiě)作文過(guò)于簡(jiǎn)單，內(nèi)容枯燥；
8. It's OK to say composition, but it's too simple and boring;
9、經(jīng)常搞混形近的字，如把視預(yù)祝弄混；
9. Often mix up the near form of the word, such as the visual wish mix up;
10、經(jīng)常搞混音近的字；
10. Often mix up near the word;
11、學(xué)習(xí)拼音困難，經(jīng)常把Q看成O；
11. It is difficult to learn pinyin. Q is often regarded as O;
12、經(jīng)常顛倒字的偏旁部首。
12. Often reverse the radical of a word.
三、閱讀障礙的成因
3、 The causes of dyslexia
在最初的閱讀障礙研究中，人們認(rèn)為造成閱讀障礙的唯一原因是大腦某區(qū)域或不同區(qū)域之間發(fā)生功能失調(diào)。隨著研究的不斷深入，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)許多閱讀障礙者的問(wèn)題是純心因性的，如眼動(dòng)模式異常、注意集中性、知覺(jué)——空間能力、詞素——音素轉(zhuǎn)換等。在此基礎(chǔ)上人們把發(fā)展性閱讀障礙分為聽(tīng)覺(jué)——語(yǔ)言性閱讀障礙和視覺(jué)——空間性閱讀障礙。
In the initial study of dyslexia, it was thought that the only cause of dyslexia was dysfunction in one area or between different areas of the brain. With the deepening of research, people find that many problems of dyslexic readers are purely due to the abnormal eye movement pattern, attention concentration, perception space ability, morpheme phoneme conversion and so on. On this basis, people divide developmental dyslexia into auditory language dyslexia and visual spatial dyslexia.
關(guān)于閱讀障礙的心理機(jī)制，目前有兩種理論。第一種理論為語(yǔ)音加工缺陷理論，第二個(gè)理論為詞形加工缺陷理論。語(yǔ)音加工缺陷理論認(rèn)為，閱讀障礙實(shí)際上是一種語(yǔ)音障礙。持這種理論的一種觀(guān)點(diǎn)認(rèn)為，閱讀障礙者的問(wèn)題在于音位表征的缺陷。較早的一項(xiàng)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，正常兒童在學(xué)習(xí)書(shū)面語(yǔ)言以前已經(jīng)可以正確地將單詞分割為音節(jié)或者音位等更小的單元，而閱讀障礙的兒童在學(xué)習(xí)書(shū)面語(yǔ)言幾個(gè)月之后還不能順利完成這種任務(wù)。更近的研究利用知覺(jué)分類(lèi)任務(wù)發(fā)現(xiàn)，閱讀障礙者難以對(duì)/ｂａ/-/ｄａ/等語(yǔ)音材料進(jìn)行正確區(qū)分。語(yǔ)音加工缺陷理論的另一種觀(guān)點(diǎn)認(rèn)為，閱讀障礙者并非不能正確地區(qū)分音位，而在感知聲音的時(shí)間特征上缺陷。盡管閱讀障礙者不能區(qū)分快速呈現(xiàn)的音位，但當(dāng)降低聽(tīng)覺(jué)頻率的模式時(shí)，其語(yǔ)音識(shí)別的正確率可以提高。詞形加工缺陷理論認(rèn)為，閱讀障礙主要是由于視知覺(jué)缺陷引起的。研究者發(fā)現(xiàn)，很多閱讀障礙者經(jīng)常混淆鏡像的字母(ｂ/ｄ)和相似的字母(ｍ/ｎ)。這種混淆有時(shí)與語(yǔ)音錯(cuò)誤同時(shí)出現(xiàn)，但在很多情況下，視覺(jué)錯(cuò)誤經(jīng)常會(huì)單獨(dú)出現(xiàn)。更近的研究表明閱讀障礙者存在空間對(duì)比敏感性的缺陷，要覺(jué)察到同樣的對(duì)比度，閱讀障礙者所需刺激的空間頻率要比正常閱讀者低一倍。這些研究者認(rèn)為，閱讀障礙者在詞形的整體知覺(jué)、詞形的細(xì)節(jié)信息識(shí)別、視覺(jué)刺激的運(yùn)動(dòng)特征的識(shí)別等多方面都存在缺陷。從拼音文字的研究進(jìn)展來(lái)看，認(rèn)為語(yǔ)音缺陷是閱讀障礙的主要原因是相對(duì)占優(yōu)勢(shì)的一種觀(guān)點(diǎn)。同時(shí)研究者還發(fā)現(xiàn)，閱讀障礙與文字的特點(diǎn)有很大關(guān)系。如有的研究者發(fā)現(xiàn)，德語(yǔ)兒童的閱讀障礙在入學(xué)前被診斷為音位分割和語(yǔ)音編碼有困難，但到了四年級(jí)之后這些困難就不存在了，隨之卻出現(xiàn)了閱讀速度慢和拼寫(xiě)成績(jī)差等問(wèn)題。英文中閱讀障礙者可能終生都具有音位分割和語(yǔ)音編碼困難等，研究者認(rèn)為這是由于德語(yǔ)較英語(yǔ)具有更加一致的形、音對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系引起的。表意文字系統(tǒng)與拼音文字系統(tǒng)存在更大的差異，漢字具有復(fù)雜的兩維結(jié)構(gòu)，它由兩個(gè)或幾個(gè)部件按照一定的規(guī)則組合而成。這就使?jié)h字形、音之間的關(guān)系比較隨意，而形、義之間的對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系相對(duì)更強(qiáng)。由于受到閱讀障礙與文字系統(tǒng)密切相關(guān)的思想的影響，研究者曾一度認(rèn)為漢語(yǔ)中不存在閱讀障礙，或者閱讀障礙的發(fā)生率相當(dāng)?shù)?。但隨后的研究卻改變了人們最初的看法。如一項(xiàng)問(wèn)卷調(diào)查的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)[，中文閱讀障礙者與英文閱讀障礙的發(fā)生率沒(méi)有顯著差異。最近的一項(xiàng)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，中文閱讀障礙兒童的發(fā)生率并不比拼音文字低。盡管研究者不再懷疑漢語(yǔ)閱讀障礙的存在，但對(duì)漢語(yǔ)閱讀障礙的心理機(jī)制的研究還很不成熟，研究結(jié)果也不一致。其中的一個(gè)分歧是，視覺(jué)缺陷是否是造成漢語(yǔ)閱讀障礙的原因。如有的研究者認(rèn)為，漢語(yǔ)閱讀障礙兒童不存在非語(yǔ)音的缺陷，語(yǔ)音分析能力缺乏，語(yǔ)音記憶能力差才是造成兒童閱讀障礙的主要原因。而另一研究顯示，閱讀障礙可能與字形識(shí)別有關(guān)。他們發(fā)現(xiàn)對(duì)于字形相似的材料，閱讀障礙兒童不會(huì)呈現(xiàn)語(yǔ)音障礙，只有在字形不同的刺激中才會(huì)出現(xiàn)語(yǔ)音障礙。這一結(jié)果在日文的研究中得到了印證，如Ｙａｍａｄａ發(fā)現(xiàn)日語(yǔ)閱讀障礙兒童更多地出現(xiàn)視覺(jué)、選擇和語(yǔ)義錯(cuò)誤，他們認(rèn)為這是由于日文中存在大量漢字(ｋａｎｊｉ)的緣故。拼音文字的一些研究提出，閱讀障礙者在詞形的整體知覺(jué)、詞形的細(xì)節(jié)信息識(shí)別等方面都存在缺陷。漢語(yǔ)閱讀障礙的研究表明，閱讀障礙者對(duì)字形的細(xì)節(jié)加工方面存在障礙，但目前還沒(méi)有關(guān)于漢語(yǔ)閱讀障礙者的字形整體知覺(jué)的研究報(bào)告，本研究試圖對(duì)這一問(wèn)題進(jìn)行探討。在實(shí)驗(yàn)中，我們利用真假字判斷來(lái)考查漢字字形整體知覺(jué)的加工。考慮到目前還沒(méi)有診斷漢語(yǔ)閱讀障礙個(gè)體的明確標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，為了與前人的研究在被試的選擇上保持一致，我們還設(shè)置了一個(gè)語(yǔ)音任務(wù)。我們的思路是，盡管語(yǔ)音缺陷還不能斷定為漢語(yǔ)閱讀障礙的原因，但以往的研究都發(fā)現(xiàn)漢語(yǔ)閱讀障礙者的反應(yīng)在語(yǔ)音任務(wù)中與正常被試有差異。
There are two theories about the psychological mechanism of dyslexia. The first theory is the defect theory of speech processing, and the second is the defect theory of word shape processing. According to the theory of speech processing defects, dyslexia is actually a kind of speech disorder. According to this theory, the problem of dyslexics lies in the defect of phonemic representation. An earlier study found that normal children can correctly divide words into smaller units such as syllables or phonemes before learning written language, while children with dyslexia can not successfully complete this task months after learning written language. More recent studies using perceptual classification tasks have found that it is difficult for dyslexics to distinguish / BA / - / DA / and other speech materials correctly. Another point of view of the theory of phonological processing defects is that people with reading disabilities are not unable to distinguish phonemes correctly, but are defective in perceiving the temporal characteristics of sound. Although the dyslexic can't distinguish the fast presented phonemes, the accuracy of speech recognition can be improved when the pattern of hearing frequency is reduced. According to the theory of morphological processing defects, dyslexia is mainly caused by visual perception defects. Researchers found that many dyslexics often confuse mirrored letters (B / D) with similar letters (M / N). This kind of confusion sometimes appears at the same time with the speech error, but in many cases, the visual error often appears alone. More recent studies have shown that dyslexic readers have the defect of spatial contrast sensitivity. To detect the same contrast, the spatial frequency of stimuli needed by dyslexic readers is twice lower than that of normal readers. These researchers believe that there are many defects in the whole perception of word form, the recognition of detail information of word form, the recognition of motion characteristics of visual stimulation and so on. From the perspective of the research progress of Pinyin characters, it is considered that the main reason for reading disorder is the phonetic defect, which is a relatively dominant point of view. At the same time, the researchers also found that dyslexia has a lot to do with the characteristics of characters. For example, some researchers have found that German children's dyslexia is diagnosed as phoneme segmentation and speech coding difficulties before entering school, but these difficulties will not exist after the fourth grade, and then there are problems such as slow reading speed and poor spelling performance. In English, dyslexics may have difficulties in phoneme segmentation and speech coding all their lives. The researchers believe that this is due to the fact that German has a more consistent correspondence between form and sound than English. There are more differences between ideographic system and pinyin system. Chinese characters have complex two-dimensional structure, which is composed of two or several parts according to certain rules. This makes the relationship between form and sound of Chinese characters more casual, while the corresponding relationship between form and meaning is relatively stronger. Because of the influence of the thought that dyslexia is closely related to the text system, researchers once thought that there is no dyslexia in Chinese, or the incidence of dyslexia is quite low. But the subsequent research has changed people's original view. For example, a questionnaire survey found that [, there is no significant difference in the incidence of Chinese dyslexia and English dyslexia. A recent study found that the incidence of Chinese dyslexic children is no lower than that of Pinyin. Although researchers no longer doubt the existence of Chinese dyslexia, the research on the psychological mechanism of Chinese dyslexia is still immature, and the results are inconsistent. One of the differences is whether visual defect is the cause of Chinese reading disorder. For example, some researchers think that children with Chinese dyslexia do not have non phonetic defects, lack of speech analysis ability and poor speech memory ability are the main causes of children's dyslexia. Another study shows that dyslexia may be related to font recognition. They found that for materials with similar glyphs, children with dyslexia did not show phonological disorders, only in the stimulation of different glyphs. This result has been confirmed in Japanese studies. For example, Yamada found that children with dyslexia have more visual, choice and semantic errors, which they think is due to the large number of kanji in Japanese. Some researches on pinyin have pointed out that there are defects in the whole perception of word form and the recognition of detailed information of word form. The study of Chinese dyslexia shows that the dyslexics have some difficulties in processing the details of Chinese characters, but there is no report on the whole perception of Chinese characters. This study attempts to explore this problem. In the experiment, we use the true and false word judgment to examine the processing of the whole perception of Chinese characters. Considering that there is no clear standard for diagnosing Chinese dyslexic individuals, we also set up a voice task in order to keep consistent with previous studies in the choice of subjects. Our idea is that although the phonological defects can not be identified as the cause of Chinese reading disorder, previous studies have found that the response of Chinese reading disorder is different from that of normal subjects in the phonological task.
還有研究者認(rèn)為造成閱讀障礙的原因可以分為外部原因和內(nèi)部原因兩大類(lèi)。
Other researchers believe that the causes of dyslexia can be divided into external causes and internal causes.
（一）外部原因
（1） External causes
1、交際性情緒剝奪。交際性情緒剝奪是指在兒童所處的環(huán)境中，缺乏兒童習(xí)得語(yǔ)言所必需的適當(dāng)刺激，因而使兒童不能掌握閱讀所必需的語(yǔ)言技能。例如，在母子關(guān)系方面，如果母親因?yàn)閷?duì)兒童漠不關(guān)心、態(tài)度冷淡而缺乏同兒童進(jìn)行言語(yǔ)交談，或者由于母親情緒低落、脾氣乖張而動(dòng)輒訓(xùn)斥兒童，那么，兒童在語(yǔ)言知識(shí)方面多半就會(huì)存在缺陷，而且兒童對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)有關(guān)語(yǔ)言的作業(yè)也會(huì)缺乏信心。一個(gè)語(yǔ)言知識(shí)不足的兒童，學(xué)習(xí)閱讀自然會(huì)有困難，Ninio&Brunet(1980)對(duì)一對(duì)母子做了10個(gè)月的觀(guān)察研究，發(fā)現(xiàn)母子交流對(duì)兒童語(yǔ)法規(guī)則的掌握和句子的閱讀有一定的影響。Roser&Martinez(1985)指出雙親在兒童早期閱讀能力發(fā)展方面具有非常顯著的作用。大量的研究證實(shí)，對(duì)母子間正常交談的早期剝奪，會(huì)使兒童難以獲得良好的語(yǔ)言技能。
1. Communicative emotional deprivation. Communicative emotional deprivation refers to the lack of appropriate stimulation necessary for children to acquire language in their environment, so that children cannot master the necessary language skills for reading. For example, in the aspect of mother-child relationship, if the mother is lack of verbal conversation with the child due to her indifference to the child and cold attitude, or scolds the child easily due to her low mood and bad temper, the child will have defects in language knowledge, and the child will also lack confidence in learning related language homework. Ninio & brunet (1980) studied a pair of mothers and children for 10 months, and found that mother-child communication has a certain impact on the mastery of children's grammar rules and sentence reading. Roser & Martinez (1985) pointed out that parents play a very significant role in the development of children's early reading ability. A large number of studies have confirmed that the early deprivation of normal conversation between mother and child will make it difficult for children to acquire good language skills.
2。文化或教育剝奪。文化或教育剝奪是指缺乏某些社會(huì)文化經(jīng)驗(yàn)，而這些經(jīng)驗(yàn)對(duì)于在學(xué)校中的學(xué)習(xí)又至關(guān)重要，因此導(dǎo)致了閱讀障礙。一般來(lái)說(shuō)，當(dāng)兒童處于在文化上受剝奪的環(huán)境里時(shí)，就會(huì)缺乏學(xué)習(xí)閱讀所必需的刺激作用。例如，如果家里沒(méi)有什么書(shū)籍，也從未有人讀書(shū)給兒童聽(tīng)，兒童也從來(lái)沒(méi)有看到家里有人讀書(shū)，那么，在這種環(huán)境中成長(zhǎng)的兒童，自然會(huì)缺乏對(duì)閱讀的學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)和學(xué)習(xí)閱讀的實(shí)踐機(jī)會(huì)，閱讀障礙必然十分嚴(yán)重。Clay(1966)、Gocdman(1967)、Herste(1984)等研究者的研究引起了人們對(duì)給兒童提供有書(shū)的環(huán)境這一問(wèn)題的重視，Cullnian(1989)、Dcnelson&Nilscn(1989)Helper&Hickman(1978)等研究者則進(jìn)一步指出為兒童提供故事書(shū)是幫助他們發(fā)展語(yǔ)言、學(xué)會(huì)說(shuō)話(huà)的一個(gè)重要因素。
2. Cultural or educational deprivation. Cultural or educational deprivation refers to the lack of certain social and cultural experience, which is essential for learning in schools, and thus leads to reading disorders. Generally speaking, when children are in a culturally deprived environment, they will lack the stimulation necessary for learning to read. For example, if there are no books at home, no one has ever read books to children, and children have never seen anyone read books at home, then children growing up in this environment will naturally lack the learning motivation and practical opportunities to learn to read, and reading obstacles will be very serious. Clay (1966), gocdman (1967), herste (1984) and other researchers have drawn people's attention to the issue of providing children with a Book environment. Cullnian (1989), dcnelson & nilscn (1989) helper & Hickman (1978) and other researchers have further pointed out that providing children with story books is an important factor to help them develop language and learn to speak.
（二）內(nèi)部原因
（2） Internal causes
1。輕微腦機(jī)能障礙。輕微腦機(jī)能障礙（以下簡(jiǎn)稱(chēng)MBD）是指由于損傷而造成的中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)功能的不規(guī)則作用，出生時(shí)的腦損傷或神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)發(fā)展關(guān)鍵年齡時(shí)的疾病。這種功能異常可以表現(xiàn)為知覺(jué)、概念化作用、語(yǔ)言、記憶、注意等各方面缺點(diǎn)的不同組合，從而對(duì)閱讀過(guò)程產(chǎn)生影響。有人認(rèn)為，在MBD的癥狀中，成熟的延遲和左側(cè)化不足是出現(xiàn)閱讀障礙的原因。Sparron等（1970）曾對(duì)閱讀障礙兒童和正常兒童單側(cè)化表現(xiàn)上的差異進(jìn)行了考察。發(fā)現(xiàn)閱讀障礙兒童和正常兒童在單側(cè)化早期發(fā)展方面（如手眼協(xié)調(diào)）沒(méi)有差別，但在后期發(fā)展的所有指標(biāo)上（如單側(cè)覺(jué)察和手指的分化等）都有差別。P。sate等（1971）考察了不同發(fā)展年齡上居于支配地位的各種技能，結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)，閱讀障礙兒童與同齡正常兒童相比，在通常是這一年齡階段形成的一些技能上（如某些視動(dòng)整合作業(yè)）雖然是有差別的，但在一些后來(lái)才會(huì)變得熟練的技能上并沒(méi)有顯著差別。應(yīng)當(dāng)指出的是，所發(fā)現(xiàn)的閱讀障礙兒童和正常兒童在發(fā)展速度上的差別并不意味著所有的閱讀障礙兒童都表現(xiàn)出成熟上的延遲，即使是由MBD導(dǎo)致的閱讀障礙也不見(jiàn)得都表現(xiàn)為成熟上的延遲。
1. Mild brain dysfunction. Mild brain dysfunction (hereinafter referred to as MBD) refers to the irregular function of central nervous system caused by injury, brain injury at birth or diseases at critical age of nervous system development. This kind of functional abnormality can be manifested as different combinations of the shortcomings of perception, conceptualization, language, memory, attention and so on, which will affect the reading process. Some people think that in the symptoms of MBD, the delay of maturity and the lack of left side are the causes of dyslexia. Sparron et al. (1970) have investigated the difference of unilateral performance between children with dyslexia and normal children. It was found that there was no difference in the early development of unilateral (such as hand eye coordination) between children with dyslexia and normal children, but there were differences in all indicators of late development (such as unilateral awareness and finger differentiation). P. Sate et al. (1971) examined the dominant skills at different ages of development. The results showed that children with dyslexia, compared with normal children of the same age, had differences in some skills (such as some visual motor integration tasks) usually formed at this age stage, but had no significant differences in some skills that would become proficient later. It should be noted that the difference in development speed between dyslexic children and normal children does not mean that all dyslexic children show delay in maturity, and even the dyslexic children caused by MBD do not show delay in maturity.
由此可見(jiàn)，在閱讀障礙兒童中，屬于MBD的人數(shù)只占很小的百分比。F。W。Owen等（1971）發(fā)現(xiàn)在他們研究的304個(gè)閱讀障礙兒童中，只有4個(gè)人可以確診是屬于神經(jīng)上的缺陷。鑒于對(duì)此癥狀所存在的爭(zhēng)議，就很難確定在閱讀障礙的兒童中到底有什么人是屬于MBD，所以當(dāng)把一個(gè)兒童歸入此類(lèi)病因時(shí)必須持謹(jǐn)慎的態(tài)度。
It can be seen that only a small percentage of children with dyslexia belong to MBD. F. W. Owen et al. (1971) found that of the 304 children with dyslexia they studied, only four could be diagnosed as having neurological defects. In view of the controversy about this symptom, it is difficult to determine who belongs to MBD in children with dyslexia, so it is necessary to be cautious when classifying a child as one of these causes.
2。遺傳因素。遺傳因素也是一個(gè)人不能學(xué)會(huì)很好閱讀的原因。遺傳因素造成閱讀障礙既可能是因?yàn)樗鼪Q定了某些技能發(fā)展的遲緩，也可能是因?yàn)樗?guī)定著某些技能所能達(dá)到的限度。學(xué)習(xí)閱讀所需要的技能任何發(fā)展上的延遲都會(huì)推遲兒童對(duì)閱讀的掌握。一個(gè)兒童的能力可能因受到遺傳的限制，在知覺(jué)和語(yǔ)言技能的常態(tài)分布中處于較低的一端，因此，不能很好地學(xué)會(huì)閱讀。遺傳學(xué)家已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)存在著調(diào)節(jié)基因，它起著控制發(fā)展速度的作用。有人證明某些語(yǔ)言技能的發(fā)展要靠存在于基因型中的潛能。有人研究有關(guān)語(yǔ)言能力的遺傳因素的文獻(xiàn)后發(fā)現(xiàn)許多言語(yǔ)障礙和閱讀障礙往往出現(xiàn)在一家人當(dāng)中，這表明遺傳傳遞同語(yǔ)言能力是有關(guān)系的。
2. Genetic factors. Genetic factors are also the reason why a person can't learn to read well. Genetic factors may cause dyslexia either because it determines the slow development of some skills, or because it sets the limits of some skills. Any delay in the development of the skills needed to learn reading will delay children's mastery of reading. A child's ability may be limited by heredity, which is at the lower end of the normal distribution of perception and language skills. Therefore, a child cannot learn to read well. Geneticists have found that there are regulatory genes that control the speed of development. It has been proved that the development of some language skills depends on the potential existing in the genotype. It has been found that many speech and reading disorders often occur in a family after studying the literature on the genetic factors of language ability, which shows that genetic transmission is related to language ability.
三、閱讀障礙的診斷
3、 Diagnosis of dyslexia
要對(duì)閱讀障礙兒童進(jìn)行干預(yù)矯治，其前提是對(duì)閱讀障礙進(jìn)行較為準(zhǔn)確的判斷。一般說(shuō)來(lái)，閱讀障礙的診斷方式可以分為：常模參照測(cè)驗(yàn)、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)參照測(cè)驗(yàn)、非正式評(píng)價(jià)策略和課程參照評(píng)估等四種方式。為了研究的方便，在對(duì)大樣本進(jìn)行測(cè)查、篩選、為共性實(shí)驗(yàn)做準(zhǔn)備時(shí)，人們多采用“智力———成就差異”測(cè)試作為診斷學(xué)習(xí)障礙的依據(jù)，也就是說(shuō)智商在85分以上（一般采用韋氏兒童智力量表或瑞文標(biāo)準(zhǔn)推理測(cè)驗(yàn)），并且學(xué)業(yè)成績(jī)明顯低于其智力水平（一般認(rèn)為是低于兩個(gè)年紀(jì)級(jí)的水平），就可以診斷有閱讀障礙。如果是針對(duì)特定個(gè)體進(jìn)行矯治，就必須采用更細(xì)微的診斷方法來(lái)確定閱讀障礙的具體類(lèi)型，以便對(duì)癥下藥。在篩選患有閱讀障礙的兒童時(shí)，一些研究者采取了分層檢測(cè)的策略：①由當(dāng)?shù)貙W(xué)區(qū)確定哪些兒童為學(xué)習(xí)困難兒童；②在常模參照智力測(cè)驗(yàn)中得分必須在80到120之間；③閱讀成績(jī)至少低于平均數(shù)一個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)差；④閱讀能力仍處于低年級(jí)最基礎(chǔ)的水平；⑤不存在其他方面的障礙。如果滿(mǎn)足以上5個(gè)條件，該兒童就被認(rèn)為存在閱讀障礙。
To intervene and correct children with dyslexia, the premise is to make a more accurate judgment of dyslexia. Generally speaking, there are four ways to diagnose dyslexia: norm reference test, standard reference test, informal evaluation strategy and curriculum reference evaluation. In order to facilitate the research, when large samples are tested, screened and prepared for the common experiment, people often use the "intelligence achievement difference" test as the basis for diagnosing learning disabilities, that is, the IQ is more than 85 points (generally using Wechsler children's intelligence scale or raven's standard reasoning test), and the academic performance is significantly lower than its intelligence level (generally considered as It's below two age levels), and you can diagnose dyslexia. If it is for a specific individual to correct, we must use more subtle diagnostic methods to determine the specific types of dyslexia, in order to suit the case. In the process of screening children with dyslexia, some researchers adopted the strategy of hierarchical detection: ① which children are learning disabilities determined by the local school district; ② the score in the norm reference intelligence test must be between 80 and 120; ③ the reading score must be at least one standard deviation lower than the average; ④ the reading ability is still at the most basic level in the lower grade; ⑤ there is no other aspect Obstacles. If the above five conditions are met, the child is considered to have dyslexia.
以上介紹的是對(duì)有閱讀障礙的兒童正式分類(lèi)的程序，除此之外，還有另一種情況，稱(chēng)為非正式分類(lèi)程序。當(dāng)某兒童出現(xiàn)十分嚴(yán)重的問(wèn)題必須做測(cè)試時(shí)，一系列非正式分類(lèi)程序便開(kāi)始了：通常是班主任與其他教師（包括學(xué)校心理輔導(dǎo)教師）、校長(zhǎng)、兒童的父母或監(jiān)護(hù)人等進(jìn)行交談，共同探討幫助該兒童和當(dāng)兒童難以管教時(shí)幫助的最好策略。測(cè)試成績(jī)出來(lái)以后，主要由學(xué)校的有關(guān)人員來(lái)決定應(yīng)采取的措施。對(duì)測(cè)試的選擇和解釋?zhuān)约霸跀?shù)據(jù)報(bào)告的數(shù)量方面，通常會(huì)保持極大的靈活性。
In addition to the formal classification procedure for children with dyslexia described above, there is another situation called informal classification procedure. When a child has a very serious problem and has to be tested, a series of informal classification procedures begin: usually the head teacher talks with other teachers (including school psychological tutors), principals, children's parents or guardians, etc., to explore the best strategies to help the child and when it is difficult to discipline the child. After the test results come out, it is mainly up to the relevant personnel of the school to decide the measures to be taken. The choice and interpretation of tests, as well as the number of data reports, often remain extremely flexible.
四、閱讀障礙的矯治措施
4、 Corrective measures for dyslexia
對(duì)兒童閱讀障礙的矯治，國(guó)外理論界先后提出多種模式，我國(guó)研究者在吸收國(guó)外研究成果的基礎(chǔ)上，歸納總結(jié)出了兒童閱讀障礙矯治的五種模式，即行為干預(yù)模式，認(rèn)知———行為干預(yù)模式，同伴指導(dǎo)模式，神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)功能訓(xùn)練和生化與藥物治療。
On the basis of absorbing foreign research results, Chinese researchers have summed up five models for the treatment of children's dyslexia: behavior intervention model, cognitive behavior intervention model, companion guidance model, neural system function training and biochemical and drug treatment.
（一）行為干預(yù)模式
（1） Behavioral intervention model
這是針對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)障礙問(wèn)題較早形成的、也是較為完善的一種模式。行為干預(yù)模式以行為主義的基本原則為指導(dǎo)思想，認(rèn)為個(gè)體的行為可以通過(guò)操縱環(huán)境或行為后果而加以改變。其中操縱環(huán)境的意義在于為特定行為的產(chǎn)生提供機(jī)會(huì)，而操縱行為后果則旨在改變某種行為在未來(lái)增加或減少的可能性。運(yùn)用行為干預(yù)模式，首先需要對(duì)行為產(chǎn)生的前提與后果進(jìn)行細(xì)致的分析，這常常是以直接觀(guān)察為依據(jù)的；其次，在確定那些可能引起或強(qiáng)化我們所要克服的問(wèn)題中，主試要?jiǎng)?chuàng)造出穩(wěn)定的、結(jié)構(gòu)化的干預(yù)環(huán)境；再次，干預(yù)的規(guī)則要明確一致，盡可能以肯定的形式出現(xiàn)，而不要以單一的禁止形式出現(xiàn)。另外，對(duì)閱讀障礙兒童所提的要求在一段時(shí)間內(nèi)應(yīng)少而明確，并保證隨時(shí)提醒的反饋。行為干預(yù)模式主要包括及時(shí)強(qiáng)化、代幣制、行為合同、冷板凳、反應(yīng)代價(jià)等直接針對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)障礙兒童本身的行為矯治技術(shù)。除此之外，這些干預(yù)模式中還包括精神教學(xué)法、直接指導(dǎo)法和無(wú)誤過(guò)程法等針對(duì)教師的特殊教學(xué)技術(shù)，這些方法均基于教師的教學(xué)對(duì)兒童的巨大影響這一事實(shí)而設(shè)計(jì)的。以無(wú)誤過(guò)程法為例，該方法的基本假設(shè)是：如果可以恰當(dāng)?shù)匕才沤虒W(xué)進(jìn)程，避免錯(cuò)誤的發(fā)生，那么兒童的學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程就會(huì)迅速而有效。其中的主要技術(shù)是“刺激形成”和“反應(yīng)形成”。所謂“刺激形成”是指教師通過(guò)控制刺激的顯現(xiàn)來(lái)誘導(dǎo)兒童做出正確的反應(yīng)。無(wú)誤過(guò)程法主要適用于兒童的識(shí)字和閱讀訓(xùn)練。該教學(xué)法強(qiáng)調(diào)教師對(duì)教學(xué)過(guò)程的精心設(shè)計(jì)，以保證閱讀障礙兒童對(duì)每一步驟做出正確的反應(yīng)。一旦兒童出現(xiàn)錯(cuò)誤反應(yīng)，教師則一方面忽略這些錯(cuò)誤，避免指責(zé)兒童，另一方面返回前一步驟，對(duì)任務(wù)做進(jìn)一步的指導(dǎo)。
This is an earlier and more perfect model for learning disabilities. The behavior intervention model takes the basic principle of behaviorism as the guiding ideology, and believes that individual behavior can be changed by manipulating the environment or behavior consequences. The significance of manipulation environment is to provide opportunities for specific behaviors, while the consequences of manipulation are to change the possibility of increasing or decreasing certain behaviors in the future. To use the behavioral intervention model, first of all, we need to make a detailed analysis of the premise and consequences of the behavior, which is often based on direct observation; secondly, in determining the problems that may cause or strengthen our efforts to overcome, the main trial should create a stable and structured intervention environment; thirdly, the rules of intervention should be clear and consistent, and appear in a positive form as much as possible , not in the form of a single prohibition. In addition, the requirements for children with dyslexia should be few and clear in a period of time, and the feedback should be reminded at any time. Behavior intervention model mainly includes timely reinforcement, token system, behavior contract, cold bench, response cost and so on. In addition, these intervention models also include spiritual teaching method, direct guidance method and error free process method, which are designed based on the fact that teachers' teaching has a great impact on children. Taking the error free process method as an example, the basic assumption of this method is: if the teaching process can be properly arranged to avoid mistakes, then children's learning process will be rapid and effective. The main techniques are "stimulus formation" and "response formation". The so-called "stimulus formation" refers to that the teacher induces children to make correct response by controlling the appearance of stimulus. The error free process method is mainly applicable to children's literacy and reading training. This teaching method emphasizes the teacher's careful design of the teaching process, so as to ensure that children with dyslexia can make correct response to each step. Once a child has a wrong response, the teacher, on the one hand, ignores these mistakes and avoids blaming the child. On the other hand, he returns to the previous step and gives further guidance to the task.
（二）認(rèn)知——行為干預(yù)模式與行為干預(yù)模式的那種特別強(qiáng)調(diào)教師的指導(dǎo)作用的論點(diǎn)不同，認(rèn)知———行為干預(yù)模式強(qiáng)調(diào)閱讀障礙兒童形成主動(dòng)的、自我調(diào)控型的學(xué)習(xí)風(fēng)格。該模式的創(chuàng)立者認(rèn)為，個(gè)體自身可以控制自己的行為，所以，行為的出現(xiàn)并不單純?nèi)Q于環(huán)境刺激或行為后果，而受其自身認(rèn)識(shí)評(píng)價(jià)系統(tǒng)即元認(rèn)知系統(tǒng)的影響，閱讀障礙兒童所具有的潛能與實(shí)際表現(xiàn)間的差距，其原因在于他們學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程是消極被動(dòng)的，不會(huì)使用有效的策略。如果提高其策略使用的水平，閱讀障礙兒童的學(xué)習(xí)狀況也會(huì)得到改善。從這一“策略缺陷”的病理機(jī)制觀(guān)點(diǎn)出發(fā)，認(rèn)知———行為干預(yù)模式主張對(duì)閱讀障礙兒童進(jìn)行認(rèn)知策略訓(xùn)練和自我控制訓(xùn)練（或自我指導(dǎo)訓(xùn)練）。
（2） Cognitive behavioral intervention model is different from that of behavioral intervention model, which emphasizes the guidance of teachers. Cognitive behavioral intervention model emphasizes that children with dyslexia form active and self-regulated learning style. The founders of this model believe that individuals can control their own behaviors. Therefore, the emergence of behaviors does not only depend on environmental stimulation or behavioral consequences, but also on the impact of their own cognitive evaluation system, namely metacognitive system. The reason for the gap between the potential and actual performance of children with dyslexia is that their learning process is passive and will not be used effectively Strategy. If we improve the level of strategy use, the learning situation of dyslexic children will also be improved. From the point of view of the pathological mechanism of this "strategy defect", the cognitive behavioral intervention model advocates cognitive strategy training and self-control training (or self-directed training) for children with reading disabilities.
1、知策略訓(xùn)練。
1. Knowledge strategy training.
研究者發(fā)現(xiàn)，學(xué)習(xí)障礙兒童的一個(gè)重要問(wèn)題在于他們?nèi)狈δ承┯行У恼J(rèn)知策略，或者不會(huì)選用恰當(dāng)?shù)牟呗?。認(rèn)知策略訓(xùn)練的基本程序如下：①對(duì)閱讀障礙兒童的現(xiàn)有策略水平進(jìn)行測(cè)評(píng)，明確這些兒童的劣勢(shì)所在，并確立所要訓(xùn)練的目標(biāo)策略；②向兒童解釋目標(biāo)策略；③示范目標(biāo)策略的使用；④言語(yǔ)預(yù)演；⑤提供低難度的材料，進(jìn)行有控制的練習(xí)，并給予反饋；⑥提供與閱讀障礙兒童年齡水平相當(dāng)難度的閱讀材料，進(jìn)行練習(xí)并給予反饋；⑦測(cè)評(píng)閱讀障礙兒童的策略，并指導(dǎo)兒童學(xué)會(huì)如何根據(jù)任務(wù)來(lái)選擇恰當(dāng)?shù)牟呗裕虎嘣趯?shí)際學(xué)習(xí)中實(shí)現(xiàn)遷移。
The researchers found that an important problem for children with learning disabilities is that they lack some effective cognitive strategies or do not choose appropriate strategies. The basic procedures of cognitive strategy training are as follows: ① evaluate the current strategy level of children with dyslexia, identify the disadvantages of these children, and establish the goal strategies to be trained; ② explain the goal strategies to children; ③ demonstrate the use of goal strategies; ④ speech rehearsal; ⑤ provide low-difficulty materials, conduct controlled exercises and give feedback; ⑥ provide and For reading materials of quite difficult age level of children with reading disabilities, practice and give feedback; ⑦ evaluate the strategies of children with reading disabilities, and guide children to learn how to choose appropriate strategies according to tasks; ⑧ realize transfer in actual learning.
2、自我監(jiān)控訓(xùn)練。
2. Self monitoring training.
在這類(lèi)訓(xùn)練中，訓(xùn)練者指導(dǎo)兒童主動(dòng)運(yùn)用內(nèi)部語(yǔ)言定時(shí)監(jiān)控自己的行為，一直到一個(gè)任務(wù)完成為止。在讓兒童進(jìn)行自我監(jiān)控之前，訓(xùn)練者要先講明具體作法。在最初幾次，訓(xùn)練者需要觀(guān)測(cè)兒童的自我監(jiān)控情況，及時(shí)表?yè)P(yáng)兒童的正確行為，再逐步撤銷(xiāo)外在監(jiān)控。綜觀(guān)認(rèn)知———行為訓(xùn)練模式，可以看到其突出特點(diǎn)是：盡量引導(dǎo)兒童成為自己學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程的主動(dòng)參與者；重視示范目標(biāo)策略、方法的運(yùn)用；以?xún)和耐獠垦哉Z(yǔ)為中介。這些特點(diǎn)保證閱讀障礙兒童對(duì)自己閱讀學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程的控制并改變其原有消極被動(dòng)的反應(yīng)風(fēng)格。
In this kind of training, the trainer instructs the children to actively use the internal language to monitor their behavior regularly until a task is completed. Before children are allowed to conduct self-monitoring, the trainer should explain the specific methods. In the first few times, the trainer needs to observe the self-monitoring of children, praise the correct behavior of children in time, and then gradually withdraw the external monitoring. From the perspective of cognitive behavioral training model, we can see its outstanding characteristics are: to guide children to become active participants in their learning process; to attach importance to the application of demonstration target strategies and methods; and to use children's external speech as an intermediary. These characteristics ensure that children with dyslexia control their own reading learning process and change their original passive response style.
（三）同伴指導(dǎo)模式
（3） Peer guidance model
這是20世紀(jì)80年代中期以來(lái)興起的新型訓(xùn)練模式，即讓一個(gè)學(xué)習(xí)障礙兒童幫助另一個(gè)學(xué)習(xí)障礙兒童，或讓學(xué)習(xí)障礙兒童的同伴（即正常兒童）幫助他。這一模式不僅適用于對(duì)課程內(nèi)容的課外輔導(dǎo)，而且也適用于對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)障礙進(jìn)行社會(huì)技能訓(xùn)練。美國(guó)的一些研究表明，兒童在集體學(xué)習(xí)中，其成就水平常常超過(guò)了平均數(shù)；同時(shí)，另外的一些研究則表明，集體活動(dòng)有助于兒童學(xué)業(yè)能力的提高。等人在！//$年的一項(xiàng)研究中發(fā)現(xiàn)，同伴指導(dǎo)策略有助于提高閱讀障礙兒童的閱讀流暢性和理解力。CB==D&&‘及其同事發(fā)展了經(jīng)典性同伴指導(dǎo)矯治模式。該模式的具體進(jìn)行過(guò)程是：首先抽取部分兒童作為指導(dǎo)者，把這些指導(dǎo)者介紹給他們的閱讀障礙同伴；然后對(duì)指導(dǎo)者進(jìn)行特殊訓(xùn)練，教給他需要給閱讀障礙同伴教授的內(nèi)容及方法；接著安排同伴指導(dǎo)活動(dòng)，一般一周至少一次。這種模式可以是一對(duì)一的，但更多情況下是采用幾個(gè)指導(dǎo)者與幾個(gè)同伴共同活動(dòng)的形式。教師不僅要負(fù)責(zé)組建同伴群體和訓(xùn)練指導(dǎo)者，還要對(duì)指導(dǎo)者進(jìn)一步訓(xùn)練，或?qū)Ρ恢笇?dǎo)者進(jìn)行額外的輔導(dǎo)。
This is a new type of training mode that has been developed since the mid-1980s, that is, let one child with learning disabilities help another child with learning disabilities, or let the companion of the child with learning disabilities (normal children) help him. The first mock exam is not only applicable to extracurricular tutoring, but also to social skills training for learning disabilities. Some studies in the United States have shown that children's achievement level in collective learning often exceeds the average; at the same time, other studies have shown that collective activities help children improve their academic ability. People wait! //In a study of $, it was found that peer guidance strategies can improve reading fluency and comprehension of children with dyslexia. CB = = D & amp; 'and colleagues developed a classic peer-directed correction model. The specific process of the model is: first, select some children as the instructors, introduce these instructors to their dyslexic peers; then carry out special training for the instructors, teach them the content and methods that need to be taught to dyslexic peers; then arrange peer guidance activities, generally at least once a week. This mode can be one-to-one, but more often it is in the form of several mentors and several peers working together. Teachers should not only be responsible for the formation of peer groups and training instructors, but also for further training of instructors, or for additional guidance to the coached.
同伴指導(dǎo)法可以較大地促進(jìn)閱讀障礙兒童的主動(dòng)性，提高訓(xùn)練雙方在閱讀學(xué)習(xí)方面的能力，同時(shí)也是改善閱讀障礙兒童在學(xué)校中的社交地位、重塑其自我概念的有效途徑。但是，這一方法并不適用于所有的學(xué)習(xí)內(nèi)容和兒童，對(duì)于難度大的課程內(nèi)容以及有顯著外化的行為問(wèn)題的兒童都不要采用此法。
Peer guidance can greatly promote the initiative of children with dyslexia, improve the ability of both sides in reading learning, and it is also an effective way to improve the social status of children with dyslexia in school and reshape their self-concept. However, this method is not suitable for all learning content and children. It is not suitable for children with difficult course content and significant externalized behavior problems.
（四）神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)功能訓(xùn)練神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)功能訓(xùn)練即心理過(guò)程訓(xùn)練，該模式的創(chuàng)立者認(rèn)為學(xué)習(xí)依賴(lài)神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的高級(jí)功能，而這些高級(jí)功能實(shí)現(xiàn)是以基本的感知等心理過(guò)程為基礎(chǔ)的。因此，對(duì)基本心理過(guò)程進(jìn)行訓(xùn)練就可以改善腦功能，進(jìn)而提高學(xué)業(yè)成績(jī)。曾性初（1997）曾對(duì)我國(guó)目前所流行的訓(xùn)練的效用問(wèn)題提出尖銳的批評(píng)，認(rèn)為這種訓(xùn)練的效果被人為地夸大了。可見(jiàn)，此類(lèi)方法的采用還是應(yīng)慎重一些，并需要進(jìn)一步地探索。
（4） The founders of this model believe that learning depends on the advanced functions of the nervous system, and the realization of these advanced functions is based on the basic psychological processes such as perception. Therefore, the basic psychological process training can improve brain function, and then improve academic performance. Zeng xingchu (1997) made a sharp criticism on the utility of the current popular training in China, believing that the effect of such training has been artificially exaggerated. It can be seen that the adoption of such methods should be cautious and further exploration is needed.
（五）生化與藥物治療生化與藥物治療是采用藥物治療，首先控制和改善閱讀障礙兒童的生理病情，進(jìn)而改進(jìn)其學(xué)習(xí)狀況。對(duì)于藥物治療的后效問(wèn)題，人們進(jìn)行了大量的研究，發(fā)現(xiàn)這些藥物治療閱讀障礙有短期療效，但其治療效果有限，應(yīng)當(dāng)慎重。
（5） Biochemical and drug therapy biochemical and drug therapy is the use of drug therapy, first to control and improve the physiological condition of children with dyslexia, and then improve their learning status. For the problem of the after effect of drug treatment, people have carried out a lot of research and found that these drugs have short-term effect on dyslexia, but its effect is limited, so we should be careful.
總之，以上五種矯治模式各有其利弊，對(duì)閱讀障礙兒童的教學(xué)干預(yù)不應(yīng)僅僅局限于某一種矯治模式上，而應(yīng)兼容并包，對(duì)癥下藥。
All in all, the above five correction models have their own advantages and disadvantages. The teaching intervention for children with dyslexia should not only be limited to one correction model, but also be inclusive and appropriate.
